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Follicular Waves Of Mammals A Review And Web Briefs

       FOLLICULAR PHASE OF THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE

    BY menstruation in women  the follicular Artesia is already completed. All developing follicles die down, only one pre-ovulatory follicle remains. The process of apoptosis kills or destroys all other follicles with their oocyte within. The causes of Artesia are  unknown, but FSH helps to prevent it. The recent investigations on the intrinsic factors with in oocyte which capacitate it ,to ovulate ,has been reported.[Wani and wani 20

INTRODUCTION

Follicle development   resembles   in bovine, humans and equines. Bovines are more similar to human than the equines because of their cycle length and poly oestrus behaviour{Baerwald,2009}

     Follicular development is reported to be in waves. These waves are preceded by the changes in hormonal status i.e. estrogen,progesterone ratio and FSH and L H  balances.    Selection of a dominant follicle may occur in each wave.

    The estradiol, inhibin A, and IGF-II act

enables  the dominant follicle to grow in a

decreasing FSH and increasing LH environment .The subordinate follicles undergo Artesia and death.

History of  GAMETES

Hippocrates in the 5th century BC

 knew male ejaculate and female menstrual blood join to form the new born.   

Aristotle knew that  the female contributed  the matter to the foetus and male ejaculate gave form and shape to embryo.

The precise reference to the creation of humans from moving and revolving water or the sperms were described in the book of GOD revealed unto Hazrate Mohammad as Wahi (relegation) in 550 AD. Thus the Quran is the first  written reference to the procreation of gametes and a mechanism of its development in the uterus too has been narrated. The involution and a fixed rate of the reduction of the pregnant uterus described in the Quran are yet to be fortified with scientific investigations. Thus Quran is the first written reference to the foetal development in this world.   Wani,2009,2010)

     William Harvey,  postulation  EX OVA OMENA meaning all things come from eggs in 17th century AD was confirmed by

 Rangier de Graaf  in 1672.He mistook the follicle  as an  egg and it is still named after him as Graafian follicle.

 It was only in  19th century,  that von Baer found the egg with the follicle and

ovarian follicle and folliculogenesis was recognized , (wani,1984,Cobb,2006)

 It was in the 20th century, that

The human egg was first discovered and the

Antral follicular growth was reported. (Cobb, 2006).

  Many precise details of the folliculogenesis in mammals were studied and even in-vitro experiments enhanced our understanding of the processes involved in different species {Table 1]

Table 1-History of folliculogenesis.

Author                         year         species               

Bullough                       1946          Mice    Mandle and Zuckerman 1950         Rat

 

Block                              1951      Women Green and Zuckerman     1951    Monkey

 Rajakoski                       1960     Cow

 Brand and deJong           1973    Sheep                      

  Clark et al                      1975     Pigs

Wani                                 1976    Goats

Wani                                  1984   Sheep

 Ginther and Pierson,       1984   Horses

Adams et al                       1989   Camel

,(McCorkell et al              2006    Wapiti            

 Asher et al                        1997      Deer

 

Figure 1.Folliculogenesis website diagram.

The below shown diagram taken from a free website shows the development

process of the follicle from the germinal epithelium, however a new concept discussed later in this book shall indicate evidences that the surface epithelium too differentiate into oocytes and are surrounded by the follicular wall and a number of videos on web  give animation figure and audio commentaries

 

 

The use of ultrasonography has helped in study [Ginther et al,2004]The transition from m ovarian reserve to growing follicles is a continuous process in women. Fig 2&3.below.

 

Fig 2

Figure 3

TIME SEQUENCE OF THE FOLLICULAR WAVES

 

In  calf Antral follicles seen at 14 days old

[Evans et al,1994]

Cattle       prenatal follicles nonresponsive   to gonadotrophins but early antral follicle do respond to gonadotrophins[Adashi,1997]                                In women the primordial follicle are recruited and destines to develop in a sequential manner throughout the reproductive life.[Baird,1987]      The recruitment of the antral follicles is made both if early and late luteal phases of the cycle.[McGee and Hsueh,2000]The recruitment of the 2-5 mm follicles is continuous process after puberty.[Gougeon,1979]A theory proposes these follicles are recruited in response to the rise in GnRH and FSH once the corpus lutuem  regresses[Hodgen,1982]The follicular phase follicles  are 2mm in diameter. Their growth was confusing under the influences of ESTROGEN,PROGESTERONE,FSH AND LH [BAIRD ET AL,1975]  These concepts have been changes and latest update published as review.[WANI AND WANI 2009,2010] In bovines and equines the ovulatory follicles have been seen during proestrus ,oestrus saw final maturation and ovulation, Corpus lustrum develops during met oestrus and diestrum when CL is functional and secretes progesterone. The oestrus cycle of cows is of 21 days, consisting of  4 days follicular phase and rest as luteal phase, mare has a 7 days follicular phase and long luteal phase. Women have a 14 days follicular phase and are almost half of the whole cycle of 28 days. a

Decline in circulating FSH and increase in follicular

estradiol, inhibin A, and IGF-II act collectively to

enable the dominant follicle to continue to grow in an

endocrine environment of decreasing FSH and

increasing LH, while subordinate follicles undergo

regression.

Chapter 3

.

Initiation of follicle development

The journey

preovulatory follicles have been estimated to be more than 175 days in women.160 days in cattle,[Gougeon,1986]A secondary follicle to ovulatory follicle takes about 42 days. The research in this aspect has been reviewed and published.[Bearwald 2009]

Baerwald. Comparative folliculogenesis.

Anim. Reprod., 22 v.6, n.1, p.20-29, Jan./Mar. 2009 refers

Many authors have named the developing follicle as dominant,privileged,challenger and atreteic follicles as subordinate  or sub dominate follicles.[BAERWALD,2009}

Deviation of the dominant follicle from the

largest subordinate follicle occurs at a diameter of 9 mm

in heifers, 10 mm in women and 23 mm in mares

(Gastal et al., 1997; Ginther et al., 2001; Baerwald et

al., 2003).

Deviation in the ovulatory wave occurs, on

average, 4 days after emergence of the largest follicle at

13 mm in mares and at 6 mm in women (Ginther et al.,

2004), compared to 3 days after emergence of the

largest follicle at 4 mm in cattle (Ginther et al., 1997).

The dominant follicle maintains a constant growth rate

throughout the deviation process, while the subordinate

follicles exhibit a reduction in growth rates (Gastal et

al., 1997; Ginther et al., 2001a). There is evidence in

women, mares and heifers, that the dominant follicle

exhibits an early size advantage over other follicles in

the pool, enabling it to establish dominance before the

subordinate follicles reach a similar diameter (Ginther et

al., 2001a; Ginther et al., 2004).

Baerwald. Comparative folliculogenesis.

Anim. Reprod., 24 v.6, n.1, p.20-29, Jan./Mar. 2009

Figure 2. Morphologic and endocrinologic characteristics of ovarian follicular wave dynamics in women. Follicle

and luteal dynamics are illustrated in women with 2 (A) and 3 (B) follicle waves during an IOI. Follicles outlined

with dashed lines represent major waves that were present in some, but not all women. Serum concentrations of

Estradiol and Progesterone in women with 2 and 3 waves are shown (C). Serum concentrations of FSH and LH in

women with 2 versus 3 follicle waves during an IOI are shown (D).

A

B

C

D

Baerwald. Comparative folliculogenesis.

Anim. Reprod., v.6, n.1, p.20-29, Jan./Mar. 2009 25

Figure 3. Profiles of individual identified follicles for 3 horse mares during the oestrous cycle, starting on the day of

the first ovulation and ending 4 days after the second ovulation (OV). Follicles smaller than 10 mm were omitted. A

dominant anovulatory follicle of a major wave (Mw) and a minor wave (mw) are shown preceding the ovulatory

waves of Mares 1 and 2, respectively. Mare 3 had no significant follicles growing during the first days after

ovulation. (Figure courtesy of EL Gastal).

Figure 4. Schematic two-follicle model illustrating the size advantage of the future dominant follicle. Based on

limited information, the diameter scale for women is speculated to be similar to the scale for heifers. The extent and

duration of parallelism between the two follicles during the common-growth phase varies considerably among

individuals and are exaggerated in the illustration. On average, the common-growth phase ends and deviation begins

when the largest follicle reaches the indicated diameters. Deviation is established before the next largest follicle can

reach a similar diameter, represented by the width of the vertical bar. (Reproduced with permission, Ginther OJ.

2001. Biol Reprod, 65:638-647).

Physiologic mechanisms underlying follicle

dominance

Physiologic selection of a dominant follicle is a

complex phenomenon, which is regulated by endocrine,

autocrine and paracrine factors. Most research to

characterize the precise mechanisms underlying

selection thus far has been performed in animals.

Results obtained in women appear consistent with those

in domestic farm animals.

The rise in FSH responsible for stimulating

follicle recruitment begins to decline in association with

selection of the dominant follicle and Artesia of

subordinates (Santbrink et al., 1995; Gastal et al., 1997;

Ginther et al., 1997). The duration and magnitude of the

FSH rise above a critical threshold has been shown to

determine the number of follicles selected from the

recruited cohort (Brown, 1978; Baird, 1987; Fauser and

Heusden, 1997). Similar to FSH, heifers and mares

exhibit a small but significant transient increase in

circulating LH around the time of deviation (Ginther et

al., 1998, 2001c). A temporal LH increase associated

with follicle selection in women has not been detected.

The dominant follicle exerts both morphologic

and functional dominance over other follicles of the

wave. Concentrations of circulating estradiol increase

with continued growth of the dominant follicle in

women, mares and cattle (McNatty, 1981; Baird, 1983;

Baerwald. Comparative folliculogenesis.

Anim. Reprod., 26 v.6, n.1, p.20-29, Jan./Mar. 2009

Santbrink et al., 1995; Gastal et al., 1999; Ginther et al.,

2000a). The follicular fluid of dominant follicles in

women contains greater estradiol and progesterone

levels and lower androstenedione levels than

subordinate follicles (McNatty, 1981; Schneyer et al.,

2000), consistent with findings in mares (Donadeu and

Ginther, 2002). In heifers, however, estradiol and

androgen concentrations increase in the developing

dominant follicle (Beg et al., 2002). Dominant follicle

estradiol production is believed to provide negative

feedback on FSH and induce the formation of granulosa

cell LH receptors, which initiates a shift from FSH to

LH dependency in the dominant follicle (Yamoto et al.,

1992b; Xu et al., 1995; Bodensteiner et al., 1996; Gastal

et al., 1999, 2000; Sullivan et al., 1999; Ginther et al.,

2001b, c). The dominant follicle then becomes unique in

its ability to thrive despite decreasing FSH, while the

subordinate follicles regress.

Although the dominant follicle plays the major

role, all follicles of an emerging wave contribute to

suppression of the wave-eliciting surge in FSH in cattle

(Ginther et al., 2000b). Follicles within the recruited

cohort produces inhibin which further acts to suppress

FSH in women, mares and cows (Ginther et al., 2001a).

The selection process in women is accompanied by a

decrease in circulating inhibin B and increase in inhibin

A concentrations (Yamoto et al., 1992a; Roberts et al.,

1993; Schneyer et al., 2000). Distinct roles of inhibin A

and inhibin B, however, during follicle deviation in the

equine and bovine oestrous cycle have not been shown

(Beg and Ginther, 2006). The role of activin and

follistatin in regulating follicle selection in human

(Roberts et al., 1993; Schneyer et al., 2000) and

domestic farm animals (Donadeu and Ginther, 2002;

Glister et al., 2006) has been evaluated. However,

results are inconclusive and further investigations are

necessary. An increase in free Insulin-like Growth

Factor (IGF) in the follicular fluid of the dominant

follicle, mediated by IGF binding protein proteases -4/-5

(the bovine equivalent of Pregnancy Associated Plasma

Protein-A, PAPP-A) has also been implicated as a

candidate for increasing the responsiveness to

gonadotropins and thereby initiating follicle selection in

cattle and horses (for reviews, see Fortune et al., 2004;

Beg and Ginther, 2006). Similarly, studies in women

have reported an increase in IGF-II and IGFBP-4

protease (PAPP-A) in association with follicle selection

(reviewed in Guidice, 1995).

Preovulatory follicular growth

The dominant follicle grows at a rate of

approximately 1.2 mm/day in cattle, 2.7 mm/day in

mares, and 1.8 mm/day in women following its

selection until it ovulates at mid-cycle (Ginther et al.,

1989a; Gastal et al., 1997; Ginther et al., 2004). The

percentage of diameter increase is similar between

species, given differences in the size of the leading

follicle at deviation. The dominant follicle in women

ovulates at a diameter of approximately 20 mm (Pache

et al., 1990; Baerwald et al., 2003a). In contrast, the

preovulatory diameter of the dominant follicle in the

cow is smaller (16 mm) while that in the mare is

considerably larger (45 mm).

Growth of the ovulatory dominant follicle

results in a rapid elevation of circulating estradiol in

cattle, mares and women (McNatty, 1982; Sunderland et

al., 1994; Gastal et al., 1999). Estradiol production from

the dominant follicle peaks one day before the LH surge

in women, three days before the LH surge in mares, and

on the day of the LH surge in cattle. Dominant follicle

estradiol provides positive feedback at the

hypothalamus and pituitary to stimulate the release of

LH necessary for inducing ovulation. The estradiol

levels in the mid-late follicular phase increase earlier in

women with 2 versus 3 follicular waves, and the

preovulatory estradiol peak occurs 2 days earlier in

women with 2 waves (Baerwald et al., 2003a).

Similarly, the preovulatory FSH and LH surges occur 1

day earlier in women with 2 versus 3 follicle waves in

association with a shorter cycle length (Baerwald et al.,

2003a), similar to previous studies in cattle (Adams,

1999). As LH levels rise in the late follicular phase, the

preovulatory follicle in all three species shifts from an

estrogens-secreting state into a progesterone secreting

state and transformation from follicular cells to luteal

cells begin.

Conclusions and future directions

Waves of antral follicular development have

been well-documented in several animal species,

including mares and cattle (Ginther, 1993; Fortune,

1994; Adams, 1999). Recent evidence supports the

concept of wave patterns of antral follicular recruitment

in women (Baerwald et al., 2003a, b, 2005). Patterns of

follicular wave emergence in women closely resemble

those previously described during the bovine and equine

oestrous cycle. The number of waves observed depends

upon the length of the cycle. Furthermore, the final

wave of the IOI is ovulatory, while all preceding waves

are anovulatory. Major and minor patterns of follicle

waves in women are similar to those observed in the

equine oestrous cycle. The mechanisms underlying

deviation of the dominant follicle from the subordinate

follicles are similar in all three species. Thus, both the

bovine and equine species have been established as

models for studying human ovarian function (Adams

and Pierson, 1995; Ginther et al., 2004). Animal models

are critical for increasing our understanding of the

biologic mechanisms underlying ovarian

folliculogenesis, given the practical and ethical

limitations in studying human reproductive tissues. The

goal of developing animal models for studying human

ovarian function is to provide the hypothetical basis for

continued research in women, which will ultimately

 

 

domestic farm animals (Donadeu and Ginther, 2002;

Glister et al., 2006) has been evaluated. However,

results are inconclusive and further investigations are

necessary. An increase in free Insulin-like Growth

Factor (IGF) in the follicular fluid of the dominant

follicle, mediated by IGF binding protein proteases -4/-5

(the bovine equivalent of Pregnancy Associated Plasma

Protein-A, PAPP-A) has also been implicated as a

candidate for increasing the responsiveness to

gonadotropins and thereby initiating follicle selection in

cattle and horses (for reviews, see Fortune et al., 2004;

Beg and Ginther, 2006). Similarly, studies in women

have reported an increase in IGF-II and IGFBP-4

protease (PAPP-A) in association with follicle selection

(reviewed in Guidice, 1995).

Preovulatory follicular growth

The dominant follicle grows at a rate of

approximately 1.2 mm/day in cattle, 2.7 mm/day in

mares, and 1.8 mm/day in women following its

selection until it ovulates at mid-cycle (Ginther et al.,

1989a; Gastal et al., 1997; Ginther et al., 2004). The

percentage of diameter increase is similar between

species, given differences in the size of the leading

follicle at deviation. The dominant follicle in women

ovulates at a diameter of approximately 20 mm (Pache

et al., 1990; Baerwald et al., 2003a). In contrast, the

preovulatory diameter of the dominant follicle in the

cow is smaller (16 mm) while that in the mare is

considerably larger (45 mm).

Growth of the ovulatory dominant follicle

results in a rapid elevation of circulating estradiol in

cattle, mares and women (McNatty, 1982; Sunderland et

al., 1994; Gastal et al., 1999). Estradiol production from

the dominant follicle peaks one day before the LH surge

in women, three days before the LH surge in mares, and

on the day of the LH surge in cattle. Dominant follicle

estradiol provides positive feedback at the

hypothalamus and pituitary to stimulate the release of

LH necessary for inducing ovulation. The estradiol

levels in the mid-late follicular phase increase earlier in

women with 2 versus 3 follicular waves, and the

preovulatory estradiol peak occurs 2 days earlier in

women with 2 waves (Baerwald et al., 2003a).

Similarly, the preovulatory FSH and LH surges occur 1

day earlier in women with 2 versus 3 follicle waves in

association with a shorter cycle length (Baerwald et al.,

2003a), similar to previous studies in cattle (Adams,

1999). As LH levels rise in the late follicular phase, the

preovulatory follicle in all three species shifts from an

estrogens-secreting state into a progesterone secreting

state and transformation from follicular cells to luteal

cells begin.

Conclusions and future directions

Waves of antral follicular development have

been well-documented in several animal species,

including mares and cattle (Ginther, 1993; Fortune,

1994; Adams, 1999). Recent evidence supports the

concept of wave patterns of antral follicular recruitment

in women (Baerwald et al., 2003a, b, 2005). Patterns of

follicular wave emergence in women closely resemble

those previously described during the bovine and equine

oestrous cycle. The number of waves observed depends

upon the length of the cycle. Furthermore, the final

wave of the IOI is ovulatory, while all preceding waves

are anovulatory. Major and minor patterns of follicle

waves in women are similar to those observed in the

equine oestrous cycle. The mechanisms underlying

deviation of the dominant follicle from the subordinate

follicles are similar in all three species. Thus, both the

bovine and equine species have been established as

models for studying human ovarian function (Adams

and Pierson, 1995; Ginther et al., 2004). Animal models

are critical for increasing our understanding of the

biologic mechanisms underlying ovarian

folliculogenesis, given the practical and ethical

limitations in studying human reproductive tissues. The

goal of developing animal models for studying human

ovarian function is to provide the hypothetical basis for

continued research in women, which will ultimately

Baerwald. Comparative folliculogenesis.

Anim. Reprod., v.6, n.1, p.20-29, Jan./Mar. 2009 27

lead to the development of safer and more efficacious

infertility and contraceptive therapies. It is further

anticipated that future research in women will provide

insight into female reproductive function in animal

species.

Future studies should be performed to

determine the role of the CL in regulating the fate of

follicular waves in women and domestic animals. A

greater understanding of the roles of paracrine and

autocrine factors in regulating ovarian follicular waves

is needed. Repeatability of follicle wave patterns has

recently been documented during the bovine oestrous

cycle (Jaiswal et al., 2005) and several follicles

endpoints in the equine (Jacob et al., 2008). Currently,

we are conducting studies in our laboratory to determine

repeatability of follicle wave dynamics in women. The

bovine and equine species have recently been

established as models for studying reproductive aging in

women (Malhi et al., 2005, 2006, 2007; Carnevale,

2008; Ginther et al., 2008a, b). Continued studies in this

area may provide insight into age-related changes in

human female reproductive potential as well as

infertility associated with premature ovarian failure.

Acknowledgments

The author would like to sincerely thank Dr.

Roger Pierson in the Department of Obstetrics,

Gynaecology and Reproductive Sciences and Dr. Gregg

Adams in the Department of Veterinary Biomedical

Sciences at the University of Saskatchewan for their

assistance in writing this manuscript.

References

Adams GP, Griffin PG and Ginther OJ. 1989. In situ

morphologic dynamics of ovaries, uterus, and cervix in

llamas. Biol Reprod, 41:551-558.

Adams GP, Matteri RL, Kastelic JP, Ko JCH,

Ginther OJ. 1992. Association between surges of

follicle-stimulating hormone and the emergence of

follicular waves in heifers. J Reprod Fertil, 94:177-188.

Adams GP, Pierson RA. 1995. Bovine model for study

of ovarian follicular dynamics in humans.

Theriogenology, 43:113-120.

Adams GP. 1999. Comparative patterns of follicle

development and selection in ruminants. J Reprod Fertil

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Adashi EY. 1994. Endocrinology of the ovary. Hum

Reprod, 9:815-827.

Asher GW, Scott IC, O'Neill KT, Smith JF, Inskeep

EK, Townsend EC. 1997. Ultrasonographic monitoring

of antral follicle development in red deer (Cervus

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Baerwald A, Adams G, Pierson R. 2003a.

Characteristics of ovarian follicular wave dynamics in

women. Biol Reprod, 69:1023-1031.

Baerwald A, Adams G, Pierson R. 2003b. A new

model for ovarian follicular development during the

human menstrual cycle. Fertil Steril, 80:116-122.

Baerwald AR, Adams GP, Pierson RA. 2005. Form

and function of the corpus luteum during the human

menstrual cycle. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol, 25:498-

507.

Baird D. 1987. A model for follicular selection and

ovulation: lessons from super ovulation. J Steroid

Biochem, 27:15-23.

Baird D, Fraser IS. 1975. Concentration of oestrone

and oestradiol in follicular fluid and ovarian venous

blood of women. Clin Endocrinol, 4:259-266.

Baird DT, Baker TG, McNatty KP, Neal P. 1975.

Relationship between the secretion of the corpus luteum

and the length of the follicular phase of the ovarian

cycle. J Reprod Fertil, 45:611-619.

Baird DT. 1983. Factors regulating the growth of the

preovulatory follicle in the sheep and human. J Reprod

Fertil, 69:343-352.

Beg MA, Bergfelt DR, Kot K, Ginther OJ. 2002.

Follicle selection in cattle: dynamics of follicular fluid

factors during development of follicle dominance. Biol

Reprod, 66:120-126.

Beg MA, Ginther OJ. 2006. Follicle selection in cattle

and horses: role of intrafollicular factors. Reproduction,

132:365-377.

Bergfelt DR, Ginther OJ. 1992. Relationships between

circulating concentrations of FSH and follicular waves

during early pregnancy in mares. J Equine Vet Sci,

12:274-279.

Bergfelt DR, Ginther OJ. 1993. Relationships between

FSH surges and follicular waves during the estrous

cycle in mares. Theriogenology, 39:781-796.

Block E. 1951. Quantitative morphological

investigations of the follicular system in women:

variations in the different phases of the sexual cycle.

Acta Endocrinol, 8:33-54.

Bodensteiner KJ, Wiltbank MC, Bergfelt DR,

Ginther OJ. 1996. Alterations in follicular estradiol

and gonadotropin receptors during development of

bovine antral follicles. Theriogenology, 45:499-512.

Brand A, de Jong WH. 1973. Qualitative and

quantitative micromorphological investigations of the

tertiary follicle population during the oestrous cycle in

sheep. J Reprod Fertil, 33:431-439.

Brown JB. 1978. Pituitary control of ovarian function:

concepts derived from gonadotrophin therapy. Austr NZ

J Obstet Gynaecol, 18:47-54.

Bullough W. 1946. Mitotic activity in the adult female

mouse. Mus Musculus L, 231:453-516.

Carnevale EM. 2008. The mare model for follicular

maturation and reproductive aging in the woman.

Theriogenology, 69:23-30.

Check J, Dietterich C, Houck MA. 1991. Ipsilateral

versus contra lateral ovary selection of dominant follicle

in succeeding cycle. Obstet Gynecol, 77:247-249.

Clark JR, First NL, Chapman AB, Casida LE. 1975.

Ovarian follicular development during the estro

 

 

 

About the Author

PROF G.M.WANI(Ghulam Mohyuddin Wani )Ph.D (Animal Reproduction / Gynaecology)  IVRI, Dr. Med. Vet (Animal Reproduction/ )HUSBANDRY HANNOVER)after retirement has permanantly wrting webarticles,His articles are on free websites and have been used by more than 10,000 students in the past one year.We request the viewers of these articles to comment on the shortcomings.If no comment is offered we feel the attempt is futile.FOr our readers we keep articles without spelling check to judge their sense of peer review and correction

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