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One of the keys to achieving power is the correct ratio of fuel for a given quantity of air. Either too much or too little fuel results in an engine that is down on power, delivers poor economy and has a big question mark against its long term durability. The primary job of the engine tuner is to ensure that the engine management system has been programmed to deliver fuel in the correct quantities at all times.

Fuel Mixture is measured in units of either Lambda or air fuel ratio (AFR). Also referred in tune-speak as either lean (small amounts of fuel to air) or rich (large amount of fuel to air). What is the correct mix of fuel and air? While there is no such thing as an absolute across the board setting, the generally agreed "golden rules" of fuel mixtures are:

1. At low power outputs (no boost) catalytic converter equipped cars require a fuel mixture of Lambda 0.99 (AFR 14.64) for best emissions, and is the target fuel mixture when the OE ECU is operating in closed loop. Improvements in fuel economy can be made by leaning fuel mixtures off to Lambda 1.05 (AFR 15.4 to 1), but this is done at the expense of cat converter operation and will increase exhaust temperatures when cruising.

2. Medium power outputs (the transition between on and off boost) sees best power achieved at around Lambda 0.89 (AFR 13.1 to 1).

3. At high power outputs things get interesting, as this is the area where the greatest potential for engine damage exists. Version I to VI engines with stock internals running around 1.2 bar boost typically make good power reliability at Lambda 0.78 (AFR 11.5 to 1). At the same boost pressure and with stock internals, Subaru WRX Version VII and later models have redesigned cylinder head combustion chambers for a very different set of burn characteristics and fuel distribution compared to the previous model, dictating significantly richer fuel mixtures of around Lambda 0.75 (AFR 11.0 to 1) or lower to achieve best power safely.

Typically, air fuel ratios can be leaned slightly for a small increase in power on engines equipped with forged pistons, due to their strength and greater heat resistance when compared to OE cast pistons.

Measuring Fuel Mixtures

There are only two ways to check fuel mixtures accurately; the preferred method is to use a high quality aftermarket wide band air fuel ratio meter in conjunction with a five wire Bosch LSU type lambda sensor. This type of sensor and meter can accurately measure fuel mixtures from Lambda 0.69 (AFR 10.1 to 1) to Lambda 1.30 (AFR 19.1 to 1) and beyond. Hence the name wide band sensor.

An alternative method for cars with flash compatible ECUs, fuel mixtures can be read directly from the ECU data stream using Delta Dash, with a few exceptions. The OE lambda sensor can "see" lean mixtures well, but cannot measure fuel mixtures richer than Lambda 0.76 (AFR 11.2). Additionally, at power outputs higher than stock, sensor placement is an issue, as exhaust back pressure between the engine and turbocharger causes a significant reduction in sensor accuracy.

Any other method of measuring fuel mixtures such as cheap DIY meters, reading tea leaves or consulting a psychic have no place in modern high performance engine tuning.

Brett Middleton has over 10 years experience in Subaru tuning and modifications and has transcribed all his knowledge into the Subaru Performance Handbook. His company, MRT Performance has modified and serviced more Subaru's in Australia than any other workshop.

There is no other Subaru book like it! Get a valuable insight into Subaru models from just about any country.

Bonus chapters plus tons of free audio and video to help you get the best possible performance from your Subaru: Visit Our Site At http://www.SubaruPerformanceHandbook.com

Common rail

History

The common rail system prototype was developed in the late 1960s by Robert Huber of Switzerland and the technology further developed by Dr. Marco Ganser at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich, later of Ganser-Hydromag AG (est.1995) in Obergeri.

The first successful usage in production vehicle began in Japan by the mid-1990s. Dr. Shohei Itoh and Masahiko Miyaki of the Denso Corporation, a Japanese automotive parts manufacturer, developed the common rail fuel system for heavy duty vehicles and turned it into practical use on their ECD-U2 common-rail system mounted on the Hino Rising Ranger truck and sold for general use in 1995. Denso claims the first commercial high pressure common rail system in 1995.

Common rail fuel system close up

Modern common rail systems, whilst working on the same principle, are governed by an engine control unit (ECU) which opens each injector electronically rather than mechanically. This was extensively prototyped in the 1990s with collaboration between Magneti Marelli, Centro Ricerche Fiat and Elasis. After research and development by the Fiat Group, the design was acquired by the German company Robert Bosch GmbH for completion of development and refinement for mass-production. In hindsight the sale appeared to be a tactical error for Fiat as the new technology proved to be highly profitable. The company had little choice but to sell, however, as it was in a poor financial state at the time and lacked the resources to complete development on its own. In 1997 they extended its use for passenger cars. The first passenger car that used the common rail system was the 1997 model Alfa Romeo 156 1.9 JTD, and later on that same year Mercedes-Benz C 220 CDI.

Common rail engines have been used in marine and locomotive applications for some time. The Cooper-Bessemer GN-8 (circa 1942) is an example of a hydraulically operated common rail diesel engine, also known as a modified common rail.

Vickers used common rail systems in submarine engines circa 1916. Doxford Engines Ltd. (opposed piston heavy marine engines) used a common rail system (from 1921 to 1980) whereby a multi-cylinder reciprocating fuel pump generated a pressure of approximately 600bar with the fuel being stored in accumulator bottles. Pressure control was achieved by means of an adjustable pump discharge stroke and a "spill valve". Camshaft operated mechanical timing valves were used to supply the spring loaded Brice/CAV/Lucas injectors which injected through the side of the cylinder into the chamber formed between the pistons. Early engines had a pair of timing cams, one for ahead running and one for astern. Later engines had two injectors per cylinder and the final series of constant pressure turbocharged engines were fitted with four injectors per cylinder. This system was used for the injection of both diesel oil and heavy fuel oil (600cSt heated to a temperature of approximately 130C).

The common rail system is suitable for all types of road cars with diesel engines, ranging from city cars such as the Fiat Nuova Panda to executive cars such as the Volvo S80.

Common rail today

Today the common rail system has brought about a revolution in diesel engine technology. Robert Bosch GmbH, Delphi Automotive Systems, Denso Corporation, and Siemens VDO (now owned by Continental AG) are the main suppliers of modern common rail systems. The car makers refer to their common rail engines by their own brand names:

BMW's D-engines (also used in the Land Rover Freelander TD4)

Cummins and Scania's XPI (Developed under joint venture)

Cummins CCR (Cummins pump with Bosch Injectors)

Daimler's CDI (and on Chrysler's Jeep vehicles simply as CRD)

Fiat Group's (Fiat, Alfa Romeo and Lancia) JTD (also branded as MultiJet, JTDm, Ecotec CDTi, TiD, TTiD , DDiS, Quadra-Jet)

Ford Motor Company's TDCi Duratorq and Powerstroke

General Motors Opel/Vauxhall CDTi (manufactured by Fiat and GM Daewoo) and DTi (Isuzu)

General Motors Daewoo/Chevrolet VCDi (licensed from VM Motori; also branded as Ecotec CDTi)

Honda's i-CTDi

Hyundai-Kia's CRDi

Land Rover's "Storm" TD5 derived from the Rover L-Series engine

Mahindra's CRDe

Mazda's MZR-CD (1.4 MZ-CD, 1.6 MZ-CD manufactured by joint venture Ford/PSA Peugeot Citron)

Mitsubishi's DI-D (recently developed 4N1 engine family uses next generation 200 MPa (2000 bar) injection system))

Nissan's dCi

PSA Peugeot Citron's HDI or HDi (1.4HDI, 1.6 HDI, 2.0 HDI, 2.2 HDI and V6 HDI developed under joint venture with Ford)

Renault's 'dCi

SsangYong's XDi (most of these engines are manufactured by Daimler AG)

Subaru's Legacy TD (as of Jan 2008)

Tata's DICOR

Toyota's D-4D

Volkswagen Group: The 4.2 V8 TDI and the latest 2.7 and 3.0 TDI (V6) engines featured on current Audi models use common rail, as opposed to the earlier unit injector engines. The 2.0 TDI in the Volkswagen Tiguan SUV uses common rail, as does the 2008 model Audi A4. Volkswagen Group has announced that the 2.0 TDI (common rail) engine will be available for Volkswagen Passat as well as the 2009 Volkswagen Jetta.

Volvo 2.4D and D5 engines (1.6D, 2.0D manufactured by Ford and PSA Peugeot Citroen), Volvo Penta D-serie engines

Principles

Solenoid or piezoelectric valves make possible fine electronic control over the fuel injection time and quantity, and the higher pressure that the common rail technology makes available provides better fuel atomisation. In order to lower engine noise the engine's electronic control unit can inject a small amount of diesel just before the main injection event ("pilot" injection), thus reducing its explosiveness and vibration, as well as optimising injection timing and quantity for variations in fuel quality, cold starting, and so on. Some advanced common rail fuel systems perform as many as five injections per stroke.

Common rail engines require no heating up time[citation needed] and produce lower engine noise and emissions than older systems.

Diesel engines have historically used various forms of fuel injection. Two common types include the unit injection system and the distributor/inline pump systems (See diesel engine and unit injector for more information). While these older systems provided accurate fuel quantity and injection timing control they were limited by several factors:

They were cam driven and injection pressure was proportional to engine speed. This typically meant that the highest injection pressure could only be achieved at the highest engine speed and the maximum achievable injection pressure decreased as engine speed decreased. This relationship is true with all pumps, even those used on common rail systems; with the unit or distributor systems, however, the injection pressure is tied to the instantaneous pressure of a single pumping event with no accumulator and thus the relationship is more prominent and troublesome.

They were limited on the number of and timing of injection events that could be commanded during a single combustion event. While multiple injection events are possible with these older systems, it is much more difficult and costly to achieve.

For the typical distributor/inline system the start of injection occurred at a pre-determined pressure (often referred to as: pop pressure) and ended at a pre-determined pressure. This characteristic results from "dummy" injectors in the cylinder head which opened and closed at pressures determined by the spring preload applied to the plunger in the injector. Once the pressure in the injector reached a pre-determined level, the plunger would lift and injection would start.

In common rail systems a high pressure pump stores a reservoir of fuel at high pressure up to and above 2,000 bars (29,000 psi). The term "common rail" refers to the fact that all of the fuel injectors are supplied by a common fuel rail which is nothing more than a pressure accumulator where the fuel is stored at high pressure. This accumulator supplies multiple fuel injectors with high pressure fuel. This simplifies the purpose of the high pressure pump in that it only has to maintain a commanded pressure at a target (either mechanically or electronically controlled). The fuel injectors are typically ECU-controlled. When the fuel injectors are electrically activated a hydraulic valve (consisting of a nozzle and plunger) is mechanically or hydraulically opened and fuel is sprayed into the cylinders at the desired pressure. Since the fuel pressure energy is stored remotely and the injectors are electrically actuated the injection pressure at the start and end of injection is very near the pressure in the accumulator (rail), thus producing a square injection rate. If the accumulator, pump, and plumbing are sized properly, the injection pressure and rate will be the same for each of the multiple injection events.

See also

Gasoline Direct Injection

Unit Injector

Unit pump

Turbocharged Direct Injection

Fuel filter

Water sensor

References

^ "240 Landmarks of Japanese Automotive Technology - Common rail ECD-U2". Jsae.or.jp. http://www.jsae.or.jp/autotech/data_e/10-8e.html. Retrieved 2009-04-29. 

^ "Diesel Fuel Injection". http://www.denso.com.au/products/aftermarket_automotive_components/diesel_fuel_injection. Retrieved 2008-09-30. 

^ "Fiat Rebirth of a carmaker". economist.com. Apr 24th 2008. http://www.economist.com/opinion/displaystory.cfm?story_id=11090197. Retrieved 2008-05-01. 

^ "New Powertrain Technologies Conference". autonews.com. http://www.autonews.com/files/07_ane_ptc/speakers.html. Retrieved 2008-04-08. 

^ . http://www.doxford-engine.com/engines.htm. 

^ 2009 Volkswagen Jetta TDI Test Drive: Clean Diesel 50 MPG Meets Prius-Humbling Thrust - Popular Mechanics

^ (multistroke injection) See BMW 2009 Brochure for 3 series

External links

This animation explains the common rail's functioning

Categories: Diesel engines | Engine fuel system technologyHidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from June 2008
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2000 Audi S4 oxygen sensor problem PLEASE HELP?

To be brief...i have a 2000 audi s4, 6 speed, with 68,xxx miles. About 2 weeks ago i got a CEL, had the car diagnosed and they said all 4 oxygen sensors with brand new bosch ones. After changing the sensors i reset my ecu, and the light came back on again after 53 miles or so. The codes before and now after are the same and as follows

p1118
p1114
p1177
p1176
p0140

and one more i dont have the code with me here but it pertains to low voltage at the battery which i found they say is because i recently the ecu which involved unplugging the battery. I know what all the above codes mean but i CANNOT figure out why this is happening. The car runs great i might add and no problems are present besides the CEL and the fact that i need an inpection now and cant go get it!!!

:screwy:

Someone please help me on this one im lost.
heyy which grounds do i look at and where do i find them? thanks
heyy which grounds do i look at and where do i find them? thanks

Have you looked at the grounds and made sure they are all good? A lose ground can cause a couple of theses codes. Also look for vacuum leaks again a small leak can through off readings.

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THE new Arfon seat was won by Plaid Cymru’s Hywel Williams who beat off the challenge from Labour’s Alun Pugh.

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